Structures and Functions in different cell types (Referenced)
This is a Low power image of the
This is a section of Compact bone.
This is a High power transverse section of Adipose tissue. The diagram bellow shows the main structures observed under the microscope at high magnification. You can observe that in these cells there is a large deposit of fat, also known as the fat droplet which pushes all the other organelles to the sides of the cell. If you look closely you can observe a number of nuclei on the sides of the cells as dark pink blobs.
This is a High power transverse section
Part 3 – P5
1) After having identified the key structures of a eukaryotic plant cell (fig1) in question two, give the function of each component identified.
Mitochondria: The mitochondrion is a membrane enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria consist of an outer membrane enclosing an inner membrane (Thar & Kuhl, 2004) and they are the organelles responsible for the energy inside the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate or ATP (Azzopardi, 2010).
Cell Wall: The cell wall is made of specialized sugar called cellulose. The function of the cell wall is to provide a framework for the cell and support it structurally. They allow the cell to keep its shape and due to it’s rigidity the cellulose and cell walls allow it organism to grow to great heights.
Nucleus: The nucleus is a membrane enclosed organelle which is found in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus main function is to control the cell’s activity by the production of RNA, it contains nearly all the cell’s genetic material, wrapped around proteins. These form chromosomes which store genes on them. Another function of the nucleus is to organize these genes just before cell division on chromosomes. The nucleus also serves the function of producing messenger RNA which code for proteins, and are vital in the process of protein synthesis, while it also transports regulatory factors and gene products through the nuclear pores, as tRNA and mRNA.
Nucleolus: The nucleolus produces ribosomes, that are organelles vital in to production of proteins in the process called protein synthesis.
Cell membrane: The cell membrane’s main functions are to isolate the cytoplasm from the external environment, to regulate the exchange of substances by the different integral proteins, to communicate with other cells and to identify the cell from others.
Vacuole: The cell vacuole is a storage bubble found in cells. Vacuoles store food or any other nutrient that the cell would need, some vacuoles may even store waste products. The vacuole is simply a membrane that is around a fluid containing the nutrients or waste.
Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the organelles that perform photosynthesis in plant cells, they convert carbon dioxide to oxygen with the byproduct being the sugars that the plant needs to sustain life.
2) The following image (fig2) includes an electron micrograph of a prokaryotic cell. Label the structures marked and give the function of each different component.
A = Cilia: Cilia are short hair like structures or organelles that extend from the surface of a living cell. There are two different types of cilia, motile cilia and non-motile cilia. Motile cilia constantly beat in one direction only while non-motile cilium cannot beat and usually serves as a sensor to the bacterium (Losos, Mason, & Singer, 2008).
B = Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the site of biological protein synthesis in all living cells. They link amino acids together in order as specified by mRNA. The ribosomes are divided into two subunits which are the small subunit (30S) and the large subunit (50S).
C = Waxy cuticle: The waxy cuticle is a protective waxy covering that is produced by the epidermal cells of leaves. Its function is to conserve water by decreasing the rate of transpiration (Azzopardi, 2010).
D = Cell wall: The function of the cell wall is to provide a framework for the cell and support it structurally. They allow the cell to keep its shape and due to its rigidity the cell wall allows the organism to grow to great heights. The cell wall in prokaryotic cells also serves as prevention from the cell bursting when in a hypotonic environment (Azzopardi, 2010).
E = Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane or also known as the cell membrane is made of two layers of phospholipids. This membrane contains many proteins embedded in it and its function is to regulate what exits and enters the cell. Many molecules cross the cell membrane by diffusion and osmosis.
F =Nucleoid (DNA): The nucleoid which in term means it looks like the nucleus, is a region within the nucleus which contains most of the genetic material that the cell has.
G = Flagella: The flagellum is a long hair like structure that has the main function of locomotion, but can also and often function as a sensory organelle like the cilia, it being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the bacterium.
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Part 4 – M2
a) What is cell differentiation? Explain your answer giving three examples of different types of cells formed during the process.
Cell differentiation is the process where a generic cell develops into a more specific type cell. This is the process that allows a single cell zygote to develop into a multicellular adult organism which is made up of hundreds of different cell types. (Anonymous, 2003 - 2012)
When there is a cell that is able to develop into any kind of specialized cell it is known as totipotent. In mammals the zygote and the early stages of the embryo are totipotent (Mitalipov & Wolf, 2009). When there is a cell that is not able to develop into all kinds of specialized cells but can develop in some way or another are called pluripotent. In both totipotent and pluripotent cells the generic cell and the developed cell’s nucleus would remain the same, containing all the generic information needed to encode the entire organism.
Some examples of different types of cell types formed in the process of cell differentiation are; Stem cells, which are found in various tissues and acts as repair mechanisms for the body (Bailey, 2011). Another example of a different cell type are germ cells which are the cells that give rise to gametes in an organism and the other type of cell type is the Somatic cell, which make up all the internal organs, skin, bones, blood and connective tissue.
b) Different cell components of epithelial tissue include goblet cells and microvilli such as columnar epithelium and cilia such as in ciliated epithelium. Explain why these three different cell components are important in the function of epithelial tissue.
There are three basic types of epithelial tissues which are squamous, cuboidal and columnar, and these three types can either be seen as simple[1] or stratified[2] arrangements (Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, 2012). In columnar epithelium the majority of the cells are usually absorptive epithelial cells (Bowen, 1998) but one finds specialized cells such as goblet cells and specialized organelles such as microvilli.
The goblet cell’s main function is to secrete mucus[3], which protects the epithelial tissues from chemical or mechanical damage and it also traps invading pathogens (wiseGEEK, 2003 - 2012). Microvilli are composed of actin filaments that bind a web, called the ‘terminal web’ below the microvilli (Childs, 2002). Their function apart from the formation of the ‘terminal web’ which helps move vesicles, is to sense the fluid flow.
Cilia are microscopic, hair-like structures that extend from the surface of the cell. The function of this cilia is to move the mucus produced by the goblet cells by rhythmic waving or beating motion. Cilia are composed of a structure called the axoneme, which is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton.
1) After having identified the key structures of a eukaryotic plant cell (fig1) in question two, give the function of each component identified.
Mitochondria: The mitochondrion is a membrane enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria consist of an outer membrane enclosing an inner membrane (Thar & Kuhl, 2004) and they are the organelles responsible for the energy inside the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate or ATP (Azzopardi, 2010).
Cell Wall: The cell wall is made of specialized sugar called cellulose. The function of the cell wall is to provide a framework for the cell and support it structurally. They allow the cell to keep its shape and due to it’s rigidity the cellulose and cell walls allow it organism to grow to great heights.
Nucleus: The nucleus is a membrane enclosed organelle which is found in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus main function is to control the cell’s activity by the production of RNA, it contains nearly all the cell’s genetic material, wrapped around proteins. These form chromosomes which store genes on them. Another function of the nucleus is to organize these genes just before cell division on chromosomes. The nucleus also serves the function of producing messenger RNA which code for proteins, and are vital in the process of protein synthesis, while it also transports regulatory factors and gene products through the nuclear pores, as tRNA and mRNA.
Nucleolus: The nucleolus produces ribosomes, that are organelles vital in to production of proteins in the process called protein synthesis.
Cell membrane: The cell membrane’s main functions are to isolate the cytoplasm from the external environment, to regulate the exchange of substances by the different integral proteins, to communicate with other cells and to identify the cell from others.
Vacuole: The cell vacuole is a storage bubble found in cells. Vacuoles store food or any other nutrient that the cell would need, some vacuoles may even store waste products. The vacuole is simply a membrane that is around a fluid containing the nutrients or waste.
Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the organelles that perform photosynthesis in plant cells, they convert carbon dioxide to oxygen with the byproduct being the sugars that the plant needs to sustain life.
2) The following image (fig2) includes an electron micrograph of a prokaryotic cell. Label the structures marked and give the function of each different component.
A = Cilia: Cilia are short hair like structures or organelles that extend from the surface of a living cell. There are two different types of cilia, motile cilia and non-motile cilia. Motile cilia constantly beat in one direction only while non-motile cilium cannot beat and usually serves as a sensor to the bacterium (Losos, Mason, & Singer, 2008).
B = Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the site of biological protein synthesis in all living cells. They link amino acids together in order as specified by mRNA. The ribosomes are divided into two subunits which are the small subunit (30S) and the large subunit (50S).
C = Waxy cuticle: The waxy cuticle is a protective waxy covering that is produced by the epidermal cells of leaves. Its function is to conserve water by decreasing the rate of transpiration (Azzopardi, 2010).
D = Cell wall: The function of the cell wall is to provide a framework for the cell and support it structurally. They allow the cell to keep its shape and due to its rigidity the cell wall allows the organism to grow to great heights. The cell wall in prokaryotic cells also serves as prevention from the cell bursting when in a hypotonic environment (Azzopardi, 2010).
E = Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane or also known as the cell membrane is made of two layers of phospholipids. This membrane contains many proteins embedded in it and its function is to regulate what exits and enters the cell. Many molecules cross the cell membrane by diffusion and osmosis.
F =Nucleoid (DNA): The nucleoid which in term means it looks like the nucleus, is a region within the nucleus which contains most of the genetic material that the cell has.
G = Flagella: The flagellum is a long hair like structure that has the main function of locomotion, but can also and often function as a sensory organelle like the cilia, it being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the bacterium.
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Part 4 – M2
a) What is cell differentiation? Explain your answer giving three examples of different types of cells formed during the process.
Cell differentiation is the process where a generic cell develops into a more specific type cell. This is the process that allows a single cell zygote to develop into a multicellular adult organism which is made up of hundreds of different cell types. (Anonymous, 2003 - 2012)
When there is a cell that is able to develop into any kind of specialized cell it is known as totipotent. In mammals the zygote and the early stages of the embryo are totipotent (Mitalipov & Wolf, 2009). When there is a cell that is not able to develop into all kinds of specialized cells but can develop in some way or another are called pluripotent. In both totipotent and pluripotent cells the generic cell and the developed cell’s nucleus would remain the same, containing all the generic information needed to encode the entire organism.
Some examples of different types of cell types formed in the process of cell differentiation are; Stem cells, which are found in various tissues and acts as repair mechanisms for the body (Bailey, 2011). Another example of a different cell type are germ cells which are the cells that give rise to gametes in an organism and the other type of cell type is the Somatic cell, which make up all the internal organs, skin, bones, blood and connective tissue.
b) Different cell components of epithelial tissue include goblet cells and microvilli such as columnar epithelium and cilia such as in ciliated epithelium. Explain why these three different cell components are important in the function of epithelial tissue.
There are three basic types of epithelial tissues which are squamous, cuboidal and columnar, and these three types can either be seen as simple[1] or stratified[2] arrangements (Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, 2012). In columnar epithelium the majority of the cells are usually absorptive epithelial cells (Bowen, 1998) but one finds specialized cells such as goblet cells and specialized organelles such as microvilli.
The goblet cell’s main function is to secrete mucus[3], which protects the epithelial tissues from chemical or mechanical damage and it also traps invading pathogens (wiseGEEK, 2003 - 2012). Microvilli are composed of actin filaments that bind a web, called the ‘terminal web’ below the microvilli (Childs, 2002). Their function apart from the formation of the ‘terminal web’ which helps move vesicles, is to sense the fluid flow.
Cilia are microscopic, hair-like structures that extend from the surface of the cell. The function of this cilia is to move the mucus produced by the goblet cells by rhythmic waving or beating motion. Cilia are composed of a structure called the axoneme, which is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton.
c) Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells that include different cell components that influence the function of this type of cell. Amongst these cell components one finds the cell body, dendrites, the axon and the myelin sheath. Explain why a nerve cell needs each of these different components to function properly.
The nerve cell is made from 4 main components which are the cell body, the axon, the myelin sheath and the dendrites. For the nerve cell to perform its function it is critical for all these components to be where they are (as seen in Fig.1).
Dendrites are attachments of the cell body. The dendrites conduct electric impulses which are passed on from other nerve cells and passed to the cell body (Ivy Rose , 2003 - 12).
The Soma or also known as the cell body is the part of the cell that holds the neuron’s nucleus, which holds the cell’s DNA and other organelles are found in the cell body (Boeree, 2003; 2009). The cell body is the passage line between the Dendrites which branch out from it and the axon which is also attached to the cell body.
The myelin sheath is a complex material that is formed of proteins and phospholipids (Ivy Rose , 2003 - 12) and it coats and insulates the axon which increases the transmission speed of the nerve fibres along the axon.
The axon is a long extension[4] of the nerve cell and opposing the dendrites, it is the part of the cell that takes the information away from the cell body. This is done by passing electrical impulses. Bundles of these axons can be called nerves.
All these different cell components are important in the nerve cell to perform its function properly because without one component the impulses in the form of neurotransmitters will not be able to flow comfortably from one cell to the next and without this function it is impossible for the body to communicate with itself and most basic functions of the body will fail.
The nerve cell is made from 4 main components which are the cell body, the axon, the myelin sheath and the dendrites. For the nerve cell to perform its function it is critical for all these components to be where they are (as seen in Fig.1).
Dendrites are attachments of the cell body. The dendrites conduct electric impulses which are passed on from other nerve cells and passed to the cell body (Ivy Rose , 2003 - 12).
The Soma or also known as the cell body is the part of the cell that holds the neuron’s nucleus, which holds the cell’s DNA and other organelles are found in the cell body (Boeree, 2003; 2009). The cell body is the passage line between the Dendrites which branch out from it and the axon which is also attached to the cell body.
The myelin sheath is a complex material that is formed of proteins and phospholipids (Ivy Rose , 2003 - 12) and it coats and insulates the axon which increases the transmission speed of the nerve fibres along the axon.
The axon is a long extension[4] of the nerve cell and opposing the dendrites, it is the part of the cell that takes the information away from the cell body. This is done by passing electrical impulses. Bundles of these axons can be called nerves.
All these different cell components are important in the nerve cell to perform its function properly because without one component the impulses in the form of neurotransmitters will not be able to flow comfortably from one cell to the next and without this function it is impossible for the body to communicate with itself and most basic functions of the body will fail.
Part 5 – D2
In femur (i.e. the thigh bone), one finds different types of connective tissue that are structurally different but all provide support. These are known as support tissues. In the femur one finds compact bone at the perimeter, spongy bone at the head surrounded by cartilage, and tendons attaching the muscles to the femur. Take into consideration compact bone, cartilage and tendons and compare these three tissues.
For each tissue type you must:
a) Find a diagram (ex. An electron micrograph) for each tissue
b) Label each diagram, indicating the key components present.
c) Describe the difference in the structure and function of each tissue type. It is important that the cellular components of the different tissues types are identified and explained in terms of their function. Remember that most structural components are adapted to carry out particular functions.
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The femur is the longest and largest bone in the body and is found in both legs and is the bone closest to the center of the body. The femur is composed of different types of connective tissue that provide support but are all structurally different.
Bones make up the human skeletal system, and their function is to support the body and provide movement to the body. Bone is made up to two different types of bone tissue, these are the spongy bone and compact bone tissues. These two different types of tissues differ in how tightly packed the cells are packed together therefore having different densities (Losos, Mason, & Singer, 2008).
The most widely found type of bone is the compact bone which makes up 75% of the human body’s, body weight. Therefore compact bone has a much greater mass then the same amount of spongy bone. The cells of compact bone are also called cortical bone, and appear to be tightly packed together into a solid mass (Stone, 2004). Compact bone is found on the outside of most bones and it’s hard outer layer is what gives bones their smooth, white and solid appearance (Ribo, Unknown).
In femur (i.e. the thigh bone), one finds different types of connective tissue that are structurally different but all provide support. These are known as support tissues. In the femur one finds compact bone at the perimeter, spongy bone at the head surrounded by cartilage, and tendons attaching the muscles to the femur. Take into consideration compact bone, cartilage and tendons and compare these three tissues.
For each tissue type you must:
a) Find a diagram (ex. An electron micrograph) for each tissue
b) Label each diagram, indicating the key components present.
c) Describe the difference in the structure and function of each tissue type. It is important that the cellular components of the different tissues types are identified and explained in terms of their function. Remember that most structural components are adapted to carry out particular functions.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The femur is the longest and largest bone in the body and is found in both legs and is the bone closest to the center of the body. The femur is composed of different types of connective tissue that provide support but are all structurally different.
Bones make up the human skeletal system, and their function is to support the body and provide movement to the body. Bone is made up to two different types of bone tissue, these are the spongy bone and compact bone tissues. These two different types of tissues differ in how tightly packed the cells are packed together therefore having different densities (Losos, Mason, & Singer, 2008).
The most widely found type of bone is the compact bone which makes up 75% of the human body’s, body weight. Therefore compact bone has a much greater mass then the same amount of spongy bone. The cells of compact bone are also called cortical bone, and appear to be tightly packed together into a solid mass (Stone, 2004). Compact bone is found on the outside of most bones and it’s hard outer layer is what gives bones their smooth, white and solid appearance (Ribo, Unknown).
Tendons are elastic tissues that help connect muscles to bone. Many of the tendons near the femur are there to stabilize the knee (Media partners, 2010). One can find two tendons helping to stabilize the knee which are the quadriceps[5] tendon and the patellar[6] tendon. The tendons can be considered as an extension of the fascia[7], they are white fibrous cords with no elasticity. These can be of different lengths and thicknesses, and they have very few, if any blood vessels or nerves and are very strong (Stone, 2004).
The end of the femur that touches the Tibia, which is the joint of the knee is covered with articular cartridge (as seen in fig 3). These articular cartilages cover the ends of the femur, the top of the tibia and the back of the patella. Articular cartilage is a white, smooth, fibrous connective tissue that covers the ends of bones and protects the bones from damage as the joint moves (Mittleman, Panagis, Klippel, Pettrone, Saleh, & Scott, 2010). This also allows the bones to move freely against each other.
This articular cartilage is kept slippery by synovial fluid which is clear, colourless and noticeably thick and stringy, like egg white. Since the cartilage is smooth and slippery, the bones are able to move freely without pain. Another type of cartilage which is called the meniscus cartilage acts as a shock absorber in a healthy knee joint.
Bibliography
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[1] Simple epithelial tissue is only one cell layer thick.
[2] Stratified epithelial tissue is more than one cell thick.
[3] Mucus is a sticky, viscous substance composed of mucins, enzymes, and electrolytes suspended in water (wiseGEEK, 2003 - 2012).
[4] In some Neurons it is hard to distinguish the axon from the dendrites, since it is not a lot longer than the dendrites, but in most neurons this is easily distinguishable due to its length (Boeree, 2003; 2009).
[5] “The quadriceps tendon connects the quadriceps muscles of the thigh to the kneecap and provides the power for straightening the knee” (Media partners, 2010).
[6] “The patellar tendon connects the kneecap to the shinbone (tibia) - which means it’s really a ligament” (Media partners, 2010).
[7] Fascia is a white fibrous connective tissue which is found in all parts of the body in different lengths and thickness. There are two types of fascia which are superficial (which are found under the skin) and deep fascia which is a dense, inelastic and stiff membrane covering the muscles and aid in attachment. (Stone, 2004)
[2] Stratified epithelial tissue is more than one cell thick.
[3] Mucus is a sticky, viscous substance composed of mucins, enzymes, and electrolytes suspended in water (wiseGEEK, 2003 - 2012).
[4] In some Neurons it is hard to distinguish the axon from the dendrites, since it is not a lot longer than the dendrites, but in most neurons this is easily distinguishable due to its length (Boeree, 2003; 2009).
[5] “The quadriceps tendon connects the quadriceps muscles of the thigh to the kneecap and provides the power for straightening the knee” (Media partners, 2010).
[6] “The patellar tendon connects the kneecap to the shinbone (tibia) - which means it’s really a ligament” (Media partners, 2010).
[7] Fascia is a white fibrous connective tissue which is found in all parts of the body in different lengths and thickness. There are two types of fascia which are superficial (which are found under the skin) and deep fascia which is a dense, inelastic and stiff membrane covering the muscles and aid in attachment. (Stone, 2004)